Carcinogenesis or tumourigenesis is the process of which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells, where they acquired the ability to proliferate abnormally and invade surrounding tissues (Atif and Peter, 2006).

All about Carcinogenesis

Cancer is a group of diseases that are characterized by uncontrolled cellular growth, enhanced angiogenesis and reduced programmed cell death (David and Lisa, 2008). Because of carcinogenesis, cancer cells can spread to other locations throughout the body, where they grow and upset normal bodily functions. It is known as metastatic spread where the cells are dispersed around the blood stream that formed leukemia or the lymphatic system that formed lymphoma or when some of the cancer cells clump together to form solid tumours (Arthur and Gary, 2009). As part of carcinogenesis, the disruptive behaviours of cancer cells are because of the changes in their genomes and gene expression that result in disruption of normal regulatory signalling pathways (Atif and Peter, 2006).

According to cancer research, about 200 varieties of cancer disease have been described. The cancer diseases can be grouped in four main types: carcinomas, sarcomas, leukemias and lymphomas, and neuroectodermal. Carcinomas are solid cancers which arise from the epithelial cells that line the inner and outer surfaces. Sarcomas are solid cancers that developed from the connective tissue cells that form our body structures. Leukemias and lymphomas are cancers caused by white blood cells (Arthur and Gary, 2009). Neurodectodermal is another group of nonepithelial tumours which arise from cells that form various components of the central and peripheral nervous system.

There are many risk factors of cancer which include both external and internal factors. Some of the examples of external factors are tobacco, exposure to chemical, radiation, and infectious organisms that can induce the development of cancer cell. On the other hand, the internal factors such as inherited mutations, hormones, immune conditions, and mutations that involved metabolism are the risk factors that have been implicated with the development of cancer cells. These causal factors may act together or in sequence to initiate or promote carcinogenesis (American Cancer Society, 2008).

In conclusion, carcinogenesis will harm our body. However, we can still prevent it from happenning. Live healthy with balanced meal is one of the best way to get rid of carcinogenesis. Recently, many cancer researchers recommend people to consume more vegetables. I have converted myself to be a vegetarian since last year. You may do so. At least, reduce the amount of meat in your meal. May you be healthy and well always!

This is a part of the literature review of my final year project thesis. I wish to share with you all what i have done on it.

Introduction of Carcinogenesis is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Cancer prevention is a popular topic that people wish me to write more in my Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog. Cancer prevention is the best possible way to reduce the death rate of cancer worldwide. According to Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention, written by David S. A. and Lisa M. H., cancer prevention research can be divided to 3 approaches to target different aspects in order to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary prevention.
 

Primary Cancer Prevention

Primary cancer prevention is an approach to reduce the impact of carcinogens. We can do this through administration of a chemopreventive agent or remove the environmental carcinogens. The main aim of primary prevention is to prevent a cancer from the very beginning to the developing by reducing individual risk.

 
There are many primary cancer prevention methods which include the lifestyle modification or interventions that modify risk. These methods will become more effective if those cancers in which causes are known.
 
Below are some of the factors that can help to reduce overall cancer incidence:

i. Minimize the exposure to carcinogens. For example, we should avoid from consuming tobacco which contains carcinogen.
 
ii. Dietary modification. For example, we should take balanced meal and reduce the consuming of salt, sugar and high cholesterol foods.
 
iii. Increasing physical activity. For example, we should do some exercises during our daily life like jogging, swimming and so on to keep our body fit.
 
As we all know, unhealthy diet and tobacco use are the leading risk factors for cancer. Smoking cessation is the best way to avoid ourselves from cancer developing. Benefis of quitting smoking begin within the first year of stopping and continue to increase. If you wish to know more about the benefits of smoking cessation, you may read the 15 Benefits of Smoking Cessation. In addition, the role of diet, nutrition and maintaining a healthy body weight is critical to lessen the cancer risk.
 

Secondary Cancer Prevention

Secondary cancer prevention is an approach to detect the abnormal changes at the beginning of the development of malignancy. It involves screening and early detection methods like mammogram, pap test and so on. This can help us to identify any abnormal changes of our body before they become cancerous. Therefore, it is effective to prevent cancer from fully developing. Sometimes, secondary cancer prevention can involve the treatment of precancerous lesions in an attempt to reverse carcinogenesis so that the lesion can regress.
 

Tertiary Cancer Prevention

Tertiary cancer prevention is an approach to control the cancer and prevention of disease-related complications. It involves a variety of aspects of patient care such as quality of life, adjuvant therapies, surgical intervention and palliative care.
 
In conclusion, we can see that the primary cancer prevention is the main role of cancer prevention. Unfortunately, the primary prevention research and efforts are largely underfunded. This lack of prioritization cause the delays in improving and delivering early detection and prevention methods that can save millions of lives.
 

Do you know any methods of cancer prevention? Come and share with us! Prevention is always better than cure!

Say No to Cancer! – 3 Approaches to Prevent Cancer is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Cancer is the most common cause of death especially the lung cancer in most of the developed countries. Lung cancer has been frequently recognized as the malignancy that is caused by environment and the cigarette smoking. I have described the cigarette smoking risk factor that causing the lung cancer in Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog these last few days. Therefore, I wish to write about another common risk factor which is environmental exposure so that we can take more appropriate prevention step of getting lung cancer.
 
Exposure to environmental carcinogens has been cited as the secondary risk factor of lung cancer independent of smoking. The exposure includes both outdoor and indoor air pollutants with contaminants of soil and drinking water. According to cancer research, the exposure of the carcinogens can occur because of both residential and occupational setting. There are many carcinogens exposing in our environment that will cause lung cancer. I just choose some major factors to be further reviewed.
 

Gas Radon Contributes to Lung Cancer

One of the carcinogens is gas radon. Gas radon and its radioactive progeny are the sources of exposure to inhaled radioactive substances. People who work at tin mines might be greatly exposed to radon. If the homes built on radon-containing soil, the residents might be exposed to the naturally occurring radioactive gas radon too. According to cancer research, residential radon is the primary cause of non-smoking related lung cancer.
 

Indoor Air Pollution Contributes to Lung Cancer

Sometimes, the indoor pollution which is caused by the cooking and heating will contribute to the developing of lung cancer too. For instance, during the time we are cooking the meat at high temperature, the potentially mutagenic cooking oil fumes and the carcinogenic metabolic products of heterocyclic amines will be released. Tai-an Chiang et al. showed that the fumes were not, or weakly mutagenic in the Salmonella assay when the distance between fume extractor and oil surface was 60 cm or less.
 

Outdoor Air Pollution Contributes to Lung Cancer

Outdoor air pollution is a contributor to the risk of lung cancer too. The fossil fuel combustion products are known carcinogens that will increase the risk of getting lung cancer. People who live in rural area have less lung cancer cases than the urban area residents regarding to the lower level of air pollution. Outdoor air pollution is composed of complex mixtures including the radionuclides, gas and particulate combustion products and fibers. Exposure to others respiratory carcinogens such as asbestos is related to the increased risk of lung cancer. How can we deal with the air pollution? Migrating to the rural area? The best way is to make our environment free of pollutant. We need to work together to help in increasing people’s awareness. Otherwise, we might pollute our rural area too at the end of the day.
 
In conclusion, by understanding the multiple components contributing to lung cancer which include the cigarette smoking and environmental exposure, we can identify the high-risk subgroups so that they can benefit from a proper screening or relevant interventions.
(Reference: David S. Albert, Lisa M. Hess. Fundamental of Cancer Prevention, Second edition)
 

Are you exposed to the environmental carcinogens? Take some actions to deal with it now.

Be Aware of Environmental Exposure – Lung Cancer Risk Factor is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Cytogenetics and cancer research blog is ready to help smoker to quit from smoking. Smoking cessation is a tough mission to be gone through. However, there are many benefits of stopping smoking for long term health benefits, including reduced cumulative risk for cancer, especially for lung cancer. So, we need the smoking cessation intervention to quit smoking effectively to reduce the risk of smoking-related disease.
 
Initially, we need to recognize the complexity of tobacco use which included the nicotine addiction with the interplay of social, psychological and biological factors. These factors should be paid attention during smoking cessation. Health care providers play the important role to assist the smokers to quit from smoking by providing both quitting aids and advices on health-related issues.

 
During the time I was finding the information about how to quit smoking effectively and doing the cancer research, I found Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Tobacco Use and Dependence which was provided by the US Public Health Service to assist health care providers when delivering the cessation treatment. This should be a good guideline for the smokers to quit from smoking too. The guideline is produced based on a systematic research and analysis of scientific literature to assist health care providers in delivering smoking cessation treatment.
 

5 A’s for Smoking Cessation Intervention

1. Ask about tobacco use

For a health care provider, you may ask and record the tobacco use status for the patient at every visit.

For the smoker, you must record the frequency of tobacco use daily.
 

2. Advise to quit

For a health care provider, you may encourage the patient to quit in a clear, strong and determined manner.

For the smoker, you have to motivate yourself to quit from smoking strongly. What can you do? You may keep on reminding yourself about the disadvantages of smoking. And also, you may visit Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog regularly to get some motivation here.:)
 

3. Assess readiness to quit

For a health care provider, you may find out whether the patient is ready in the next 30 days.

For the smoker, just prepare yourself to quit from smoking including the psychological and physical preparation.
 

4. Assist with quitting

For a health care provider, you may provide the counselling or pharmacotherapy to assist the patient quit smoking effectively.

For the smoker, try to ask for the health care provider’s help to enhance the effectiveness of smoking cessation. The support of family members is always the main inspiration and energy source for the smoker to successfully quitting smoking.
 

5. Arrange follow up

For a health care provider, you must make an appointment with the patient to follow up the smoking cessation status. Preferably, the health care provider may set up a schedule to follow up with the patient start from the first week of quitting.

For the smoker, you may jot down the date you start quitting. You may motivate yourself by counting the number of the day you live without the tobacco. You will start to feel impress with your determination to quit from smoking then. And this is the time I wish to say congratulation to you! You are awesome!
 
In conclusion, smoking cessation intervention has successfully helped many of smokers who wish to quit from smoking. By looking on the evidence of adverse impact of smoking which harms nearly every organ in our body, it is the time to encourage yourself and your beloved to stop smoking.
(Reference: David S. Albert, Lisa M. Hess. Fundamental of Cancer Prevention, Second edition)
 

Do you have any success story of smoking cessation? Come and share with us.

Smoking Cessation Intervention to Quit Smoking Effectively is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Tobacco use is a public health issue. I am so surprise that the post of “Cigarette Smoking – Primary Risk Factor of Lung Cancer” being listed in the top 200 of controversial article in Reddit.com yesterday. Although this was not good news (I think), I decided to write more about the benefits of smoking cessation today to firmly increase people’s awareness about that.

Smoking cessation provides extensive health benefits for everyone including the smokers and non-smokers. According to the reports of the US Surgeon General on the health consequences of smoking, there are many significant health benefits of quitting smoking. Although some cases show that the increased of lung cancer risk at the beginning of smoking cessation, there are still a lot of successful cases show the good side of smoking cessation.
 
Below are the 15 benefits of quitting smoking which I arrange it according to the timeline of smoking cessation.

1. After quitting within 2 weeks to 3 months, the pulmonary function and circulation will be improved.
 
2. Within 1-9 months after quitting, the ciliary and lung epithelium function will be restored.
 
3. Although the former smoker might experience coughing frequently initially, this is good for our body as the lungs remove excess mucus and tobacco smoke particulates.
 
4. After several months, the lung function of the former smoker will improve significantly.
 
5. After a year quitting from smoking, the former smoker will experience decreased coughing.
 
6. At the same time, the former smoker will regain his fatigue and the shortness of breath will be improved.
 
7. Consequently, the excess risk for coronary heart disease will be reduced to half than the continuing smokers.
 
8. After 5 – 15 years later, the risk of getting stroke will be reduced to the rate similar to the non-smokers.
 
9. The risk of getting the lung cancer will be reduced to half of the continuing smokers.
 
10. The risk of getting mouth larynx, pharynx, esophagus, bladder, kidney or pancreas cancer will be reduced.
 
11. After 15 years of smoking cessation, the risk for coronary heart disease will be reduced to the same rate as the people who never smoked.
 
12. Smoking cessation can significantly reduce the cumulative risk of death from lung cancer regardless the gender.
 
13. The former smokers that successfully give up the tobacco use can be expected to live much longer. If you are 35 years old and you quit from smoking, you are expected to live an additional 6 – 9 years than the smokers.
 
14. Some of the elderly smokers keep claiming that it is too late to quit from smoking as the damage is done on their body for a long time ago. However, according to the cancer research, there is an individual who quit from smoking start from 65 can live much longer (4 – 5 years) compared to those continued to smoke. Therefore, please do not ignore the potential of smoking cessation even for the elderly smokers.
 
15. If you are under medical treatment, quitting from smoking is better for you. According to cancer research, smoking will reduces the overall effectiveness of treatment, while causing the side effect of treatment and consequently decrease the survival rate.
 
In conclusion, there are too many benefits of smoking cessation. It is never too late to quit or advice others to quit from smoking to incur health benefits. I will try to find out more information about how to quit smoking effectively and post in my blog next time. Stay tuned!

(Reference: David S. Albert, Lisa M. Hess. Fundamental of Cancer Prevention, Second edition)
 

Are you hesitating to quit from smoking? Just do it!

15 Benefits of Smoking Cessation is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Cigarette smoking is the primary risk factor for lung cancer. The cancer research shows that the risk of getting the lung cancer is higher among the cigarette smokers than the non-smokers. Compared to never smokers, smokers have a 20-fold risk of developing lung cancer. There are many bad effects of cigarette smoking which may result in chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer. If you are a cigarette smoker, I advise you to give some efforts to stop from it now.
 

Tobacco Smoke is a Carcinogen of Lung Cancer

As we all know, the tobacco smoke is one of the carcinogen that causes the cancer, especially the lung cancer. The properties of tobacco smoke destruct lung tissue by inflammation and consequently causing the lung cancer. According to cancer research, cigarette smokers have lower levels of lung function than non-smoker, and quitting smoking greatly reduces cumulative risk for developing lung cancer. The risk of former smokers to develop lung cancer will increase during the first 3-5 years after smoking cessation. The risk of former smokers to develop lung cancer might increase during the first 3-5 years after smoking in some cases but still a lot advantages quiting smoking. Why they stop from smoking? Most of them is because of they are symptomatic and may already possess some critical diseases.
 

Passive Smoking Can Cause Lung Cancer

While active smoking has been shown to be the main cause of lung cancer, second-hand smoke contains the same carcinogens even worse that are inhaled by smokers. Unfortunately, the second-hand smoke affects the non-smokers too. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is one of the environmental chemicals that toxic to our body. During passive smoking, the body is attacked by an excess of free radicals which inducing oxidative stress. Therefore, even a short period of passive smoking will break down serum antioxidant defence of the non-smoker and accelerates lipid peroxidation.
 

Oxidative DNA Damage Can Cause Lung Cancer

Besides, the components of tobacco smoke also induce oxidative DNA damage. This oxidative DNA damage is related to an increased risk of developing several degenerative chronic diseases which includes coronary heart disease and the dysfunctional cells (cancer).
 
In conclusion, cigarette use is a public health issue that will cause the development of lung cancer to everyone. Smoking cessation provides extensive health benefits for everyone in the world. Thus, quit from smoking now to protect yourself and the world.
(Reference: David S. Albert, Lisa M. Hess. Fundamental of Cancer Prevention, Second edition)
 

Smoking is the cause of lung cancer. Get rid of it now!

Cigarette Smoking – Primary Risk Factor for Lung Cancer is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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During surfing some Cytogenetics and Cancer Research sites, I just know that November is the Lung Cancer Awareness Month! Therefore, I wish to write about the lung cancer this time.
 

Lung Cancer | Leading Cause of Cancer-Related Death

Lung Cancer remains the leading cause of cancer-related death in men and in women. It has surpassed even prostate cancer or breast cancer. According to Jemal et al. 2008, an estimated 215,020 new cases of lung cancer were diagnosed in 2008. Most of us may think that this to be mainly a man’s disease, but there is 47% of new lung cancer cases were diagnosed among the women.
 

Lung Cancer | Malignancy determined by the Environment

Lung cancer has frequently been cited as a malignancy that is determined by the environment. In addition, the risk factor of lung cancer is mostly associated with cigarette smoking. Some others risk factors are related to the occupations like mining, asbestos exposure, shipbuilding and petroleum refining. However, some of the evidences show that mutations and loss of heterozygosity at genetic loci such as oncogenes and tumor suprressor genes are also involved in lung cancer forming. Most of these changes are thought to be accumulated at the somatic cell level.

Lung Cancer Cases Increases Because of Smoking Trend

The increase of the smoking prevalence is the main reason why the lung cancer increases dramatically. Even women also start to use cigarettes nowadays. The gender gap in smoking prevalence becomes significantly narrow over the middle and latter parts of the century as a consequence of several trends such as the the image advertising targeting of women.
 

Dietary Control to Prevent Lung Cancer

How can we prevent from the lung cancer? Dietary studies have found that the high consumption of carotene-containing fruits and vegetables may reduce the risk of getting lung cancer. Only the dietary control is not enough to get rid of lung cancer. The dietary control becomes useless if we continuously consume the cigarette.
 
In conclusion, the best way to prevent the lung cancer is to keep away from consuming the cigarette or quit from smoking. There is no any benefit of using cigarette for our daily habits.

(Reference: David S. Albert, Lisa M. Hess. Fundamental of Cancer Prevention, Second edition)
 

Do you know why using cigarette is not recommended? Come and share with us!

Introduction of Lung Cancer is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Lifestyle and Environmental Risk Factors

In my last post about 5 major breast cancer risk factors, I have mentioned that the lifestyle is also an important contributor to the breast cancer. Therefore, I will introduce to you another 2 most high recognized risk factors of breast cancer in cancer research.

Lifestyle is Essential

I will start off by talking about the lifestyle. According to the cancer research, the breast cancer incidence around the world is largely attributed to differences in dietary intake and reproductive behaviour.

Some of the dietary intake can be the protective against breast cancer.

a) Diets with enriched grains, fruits and vegetables

b) Diets with low saturated fats

c) Diets with low calories

d) Diets without alcohol

As we all know, most of the breast cancer occur during the postmenopausal period. There are many reasons associated with this statement. According to cancer research, diets with high energy content in the form of animal fats and refined carbohydrates may cause the adult weight gain and consequently induce breast cancer. Another reason is the usual sedentary lifestyle among the postmenopausal community. These kinds of lifestyle certainly will cause the obesity. There is evidence saying that high fat and energy diets intake without any exercise may contribute to the development of breast cancer. However, we should not start to look after our lifestyle just when postmenopausal period. We should serve the healthy lifestyle as the basis to reduce the breast cancer start from child hood.

Environmental Exposures

Next, we will continue to discuss about the environmental risk factors. Some of the environmental exposures might harm us to induce breast cancer, there are:

a) Tobacco smoke (direct or indirect exposure)

b) Dietary (charred and processed meats)

c) Carcinogens

The ionizing irradiation is associated to the breast cancer. The high doses of ionizing irradiation will increased the risk of cancer if the chest area is exposure during puberty. If you had been exposed to the irradiation exposure before this especially to the chest area, you are advised to do the examination. The risk increases to nearly 20-fold for women treated during their adolescence.  Tobacco and alcohol consuming is totally prohibited from our life if we really wish to get rid of breast cancer. However, there is still o evidence support to the significant link between other environmental exposures and breast cancer risk.

Thus, we can change the destiny if we really aware to our lifestyle and environment exposures to get rid of breast cancer. Living healthy, free from cancer!

Have you change your lifestyle to the healthy mode? Make a difference today!

Breast Cancer Series: Lifestyle and Environmental Risk Factors is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Findings of Cancer Research

According to cancer research, breast cancer is the most commonly cancer diagnosed in the world. I have mention it in my Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog. Are you in the risk of breast cancer? After knowing the basis of breast cancer, we have to know what the risk factors of breast cancer are. With the findings of cancer research, there are 5 major risk factors of breast cancer.

5 Major Risk Factors of Breast Cancer

Breast Cancer Risk Factor I: Age and Gender

Is the breast cancer can be linked to the age and gender? Yes! The females have higher possibility to get the breast cancer than the male. The male breast cancer case is very rare to occur. At the same time, cancer research shows that sporadic breast cancer is relatively rare among women who are younger than 40 years old. However, women who are 40 years old above will significantly sustain with much higher possibility of breast cancer. The highest breast cancer incidence rate is between 50 to 69 years old. After 70, the incidence rate of breast cancer is decline. If you are surrounding menopause period, I will highly recommend you to go for body check frequently, especially for mammography screening. There is a significant increase of breast cancer incidence rate during the years before and after menopause. Sincerely, it is better to do the checking annually regarding the age just for your own good. Below is the guidelines that we can follow；

Breast Cancer Risk Factor II: Family History

If one of your relative with breast cancer, is it possible for you to be the carrier too? This is the common question might be asked by most of the people. Unfortunately, a positive family history of breast cancer is the most widely recognized risk factor for breast cancer, especially for the closest relative according to cancer research. Breast cancer exhibits high penetrance among the hereditary cancers. If you are suspected to be at risk for hereditary forms of breast cancer, you are advised to seek expert genetic counsellor to deal with it. There are many genetic tests can be done to confirm the degree of risk. For further information about the genetic counselling centre in your area, you may go to http://www.cancer.gov/search/geneticsservices/ to check avaibility.

Breast Cancer Risk Factor III: Reproductive

If you experienced natural menopause after 55 years old, you are twice time risky compare to others in term of breast cancer. Women with early menarche before 12 years old also sustain higher risk of breast cancer. Early menarche results in early onset of regular ovulatory menstrual cycles. Consequently, the girl might in an extended exposure to reproductive hormones. It is good to avoid from having a late pregnancy. Cancer research shows that women who have their first child only after 30 will in higher risk. However, breastfeeding is a good behaviour to reduce the risk of breast cancer.

Breast Cancer Risk Factor IV: Endogenous Hormone Exposures

Exposure of sex hormones, most properly extradiol (E2) in a long run will cause the developing of breast cancer. Many of recent cancer researches support an elevated risk among women with high E2 levels.

Breast Cancer Risk Factor V: Exogenous Hormone Exposures

The use of Oral Contraceptive (OC) has been a controversial issue that associate with the risk of breast cancer. The use of OC conferred a small increase in risk of breast cancer. The risk appears to decrease with age and time with OC discontinuation. However, OC consuming significantly reduce the risk of ovarian cancers. Another possible exogenous hormone exposure is Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT). HRT is used for the prevention of chronic disease for long-term use. This application might cause the increase of risk of breast cancer. Therefore, for patient that suffering severe menopausal symptoms have to deal with the significant challenge that related to the risk of breast cancer.

In conclusion, these are the risk factors that we need to pay attention. Although i’m not mention in this article, unhealthy life style also plays a role in contributing to the development of breast cancer accoding to cancer research. Live healthy with high awareness!

Are you feeling worry on your health status? Go and check for it!

Breast Cancer Series: Are You Risky?! is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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