What is tumor angiogenesis? Tumor angiogenesis is the growth of new capillary blood vessels that penetrate into tumor and supply the nutrients and oxygen as well as removing waste products. The tumors need angiogenesis to grow and evade in our body. The tumor cells can get the necessary oxygen and nutrient supplies by passive diffusion when the tumor angiogenesis occur. Therefore, the anti-angiogenic therapy is a good approach to treat the tumor progression by stopping the tumor angiogenesis.
 

Anti-angiogenic Therapy is Effective to Treat Cancer

Anti-angiogenic therapy of cancer is a highly effective way for destroying the tumor cells. The tumors cannot grow and survive without angiogenesis. If the anti-angiogenic agents are applied before a tumor develops, it can be considered as a vaccine in preventing the tumor development. Yet, it is not a cure for cancer but just represents the treatment. If we really want to cure the cancer, we need to target the agents and pathways that cause cancer.
 

Advantages of Anti-angiogenic Therapy

i. Unlike the chemotherapy, anti-angiogenic therapy contains little or no toxic to our body. It is because it does not require the therapeutic drug enter any tumor cells. The therapeutic agent needs not to cross the blood brain barrier.
 
ii. This treatment regulate the tumor growth regardless the growth fraction, tumor cell heterogeneity and tumor cell type.
 
iii. This treatment does not induce acquired drug resistance.
 
iv. As the normal vasculature of an adult is dormant, the specificity of angiogenic inhibitors can be applied. This allows the long-term and nontoxic treatment of tumors to the patients. This is the greatest advantage if compare to the nonspecific modalities of chemotherapy and radiation therapy to treat cancer.
 
v. Anti-angiogenic agents aim not only DNA synthesis and cell division, but also the biologic feature of tumor cells.
 
In conclusion, anti-angiongenic therapy has a great potential on treating the cancer and control the progression of tumor cells. Yet, there are some difficulties related to the clinical evaluation of the efficiency of these anti-angiogenic drugs. Sometimes, the therapy might works on the animal model but not in human. The cancer research on this therapy will be carried on to bring its potency into play.

Anti-angiogenic Therapy to Treat Cancer is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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3 Basic Ways to Relieve Cancer Pain

1. Dealing with the Origin of the Pain

Generally, people will choose to eliminate or modify the origin of the cancer pain. To do this, we can remove or shrink the cancer that caused the pain. Many cancer therapies are used to remove or shrink the cancer such as surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and hormonal therapy.

Yet, there are many disadvantages by using this way to relieve the cancer pain. First, most of those cancer therapies possess some risk. The patients receive such therapies to relieve the cancer pain may take the risk to certain side effects. In addition, not all the cancer patients are suitable to use the surgery to relieve the cancer pain. For instance, if the cancer has spread or if a patient’s overall condition is weak, the surgery is not suitable for him. Furthermore, only some types of cancer respond well to radiation and chemotherapy. Most of these treatments can only reduce the pain slowly. Sometimes, the therapies may cause new pain as a side effect.
 

2. Altering the Pain Message with Painkillers

Another common way that we can use to relieve the cancer pain is to alter the perception of pain. When the message reaches the spinal cord and brain, we can use the painkillers or analgesics to change the message to relieve the pain. For example, Morphine is used to alter the perception of pain in a selective and reversible way to blunt the pain. This is an effective way as it will always function normally with proper use.
 

3. Interrupting the Pain Signals

The third way to relieve the cancer pain is to use a nerve block to interrupt the pain signal between the source of pain and the central nervous system. This is the least used way to relieve the cancer pain. In cancer research, these strategy have more risks and irreversible to blunt the pain. Therefore, it is only suitable to small amount of cancer patients.
 
In conclusion, we can prevent the cancer pain by just applying some simple basic ways. Yet, before any of these approaches are applied, we should consult the medical expert so that the most appropriate treatment plan is established for optimum effect.
 
(Reference: The Complete Guide to Relieving Cancer Pain and Suffering by Richard B. P. & Susan S. L.)

3 Basic Ways to Relieve Cancer Pain is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Overview of Cri du Chat Syndrome

In 1963, Dr. Jerome Lejeune first described Cri du chat syndrome. It is named for the cat-like cry made by the patients with this genetic disorder. In French, Cri du chat means “cry of the cat”. Or we can call this syndrome as “5p minus syndrome”. This is because there is small deletion of genetic material from the short “p” arm of chromosome 5 to cause this unusual genetic disorder.
 

Features of Cri du Chat Syndrome

There are many unusual features for the infants with Cri du chat syndrome.

i. Cat-like cry (the most classic feature)

ii. Unusual facial features

iii. Poor muscle tone (hypotonia)

iv. Small head size (microcephaly)

v. Mental retardation

vi. Low birth weight

vii. Slow growth

viii. Congenital heart defects

ix. Language difficulties

x. Delayed motor skill development

xi. Behavioral problems (childish)
 

Genetic Basis of Cri du Chat Syndrome

The high-pitched mewing cry during infancy is caused by defective development of the larynx (organ in the throat which produced voice). The deleted part of chromosome 5 is essential for normal development. As we all know, human have 46 chromosomes in every single cell of our body. At the same time, we should have two copies of chromosome 5. However, individuals with Cri du chat syndrome have lost a small part of chromosome 5. There is a small piece of material has been deleted from the “p” arm of one of the chromosome 5. On the other hand, the deleted chromosomal material consists of many important genes for normal development. Because of losing these essential genes, the larynx, brain and other parts of body cannot function normally. Generally, the deletion is sporadic (occurs irregularly).
 

Diagnosis of Cri du Chat Syndrome

Yet, the cat-like cry from children with Cri du chat syndrome will becomes less noticeable when they get older. Therefore, we can just identify and diagnose this syndrome if a child with younger age has this unusual mewing cry. Chromosome analysis or karyotyping can provide the definitive diagnosis of Cri du chat syndrome by staining the chromosome and examining them under a microscope. FISH (fluorescence in-situ hybridisation) is useful and effective to detect a small deletion in chromosome like Cri du chat syndrome.
 
Unfortunately, there is still no cure for this syndrome. Nevertheless, the medical experts can still provide the supportive care and development therapy to the patients to make the things better. Once the unusual features are under controlled, most of them can live normally.
 
In conclusion, although there is still no cure for Cri du chat syndrome, we can still lessen the symptoms by receiving the suitable therapy.
 
I have to apologise as I seldom to update this Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog recently. I’m busying doing my final year project in University of Malaya. However, I will try my best to keep on updating the blog. Thanks!

Cri du Chat Syndrome – Human with Cat-like Cry is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Peritoneal Cancer Progression

1. At first, the tumour cells from the primary organ must break away from the primary tumour mass and gain access to the peritoneal cavity.
 
2. Then, the tumour cells free to disseminate around the peritoneal cavity.

 
3. There are many factors that determine the final destination of these tumour cells.

i. Gravity
 
ii. Movement of the abdominal viscera
 
iii. Flow of ascetic fluid
 
4. The tumour cells will first enter the innermost layer of peritoneum which is our mesothelium.
 
5. Next, the tumour cells will attach to the mesothelium.
 
6. Consequently, the mesothelial monolayer and its basement membrane will penetrate to the submesothelial connective tissue. The penetration provides the chance to the tumour cells to access to the submesothelial connective tissue too.
 
7. Continuously, the invasion of the underlying connective tissue gives the necessary scaffold for tumour proliferation and provides tumour-stromal interaction.
 
8. The discrete metastatic tumour deposit starts to establish.
 
9. Finally, the induction of angiogenesis to sustain tumour proliferation has enabled the further metastatic growth of peritoneal cancer cells.
 
In conclusion, peritoneal cancer is a rare cancer that still needs a lot of research for further understanding. I decide to write about it in Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog because it is interesting to look on. I will try to find out more information about peritoneal cancer and write it out here. Stay tuned!

( Resource: Cancer Treatment and Research by Steven T. Rosen)
 

Have you heard about peritoneal cancer before? Any extra useful information to share with us?

9 Steps of Peritoneal Cancer Progression is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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What is human genome?

Human genome is the complete set of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in human body. The DNA contained within each of body cells. The DNA carries the signals to build and maintain the body cells to function so that the heart will keep pumping, brain will keep thinking and bones will keep growing.
 

Overview and History of Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project was the natural culmination of the history of genetic research. Alfred Sturtevant, an undergraduate student in Thomas Hunt Morgan’s laboratory, found that he could map the locations of fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) genes whose mutations the Morgan laboratory was tracking over generations. This is the tremendous start of gene mapping and finally leads to the human genome sequencing project.
 
When the Human Genome Project started in 1990, the researchers had set a goal to complete the project within 15 years but completed it in 2003, with two years to spare. During that time, many volunteers gave blood to provide their DNA as a contribution for the HGP. However, the labels on the blood tubes were intentionally removed to protect the privacy of the donors. Therefore, the final human genome sequence which has been published in 2003 is a combination of many of the donors’ DNA. The researchers had found that 99.9% of everyone’s DNA sequence is exactly the same. However, there are still some tiny fractions of genome that varies among humans. These variations are very important and make all humans unique in physical appearance like colour of eyes and even influence the risk of disease and the response to drugs. Even so, the genome is just one part of the amazing puzzle of human. Lifestyle and environmental factors do influence humans’ health condition too.
 

Contributions of Human Genome Project

By knowing this, the successful of HGP to sequence human genome has made the job of finding genes that cause some genetic diseases easier. The researchers hope that they can find out the genetic basis of other diseases such as heart disease, diabetes and even mental illness so that the drugs and treatments that specifically target these diseases can be designed properly. For example, there are some genes that involved in cancer had already been identified and make the treatment designed much easier.

What have been done in Human Genome Project?

In Human Genome Project, the researchers have deciphered the human genome in three major ways:
 
i. The sequence of all DNA bases in human genome.
 
ii. Maps that show the locations of genes for major sections of human chromosomes.
 
iii. Linkage maps which inherited traits especially those for genetic disease can be tracked over generations.
 
There are about 20,500 human genes revealed in Human Genome Project. This finding appeared to be significantly fewer than previous estimates, which ranged from 50,000 genes to 140,000. This final human genome sequence has given the world a resource of detailed information about the structure, organization and function of the complete set of human genes. This can be considered as the basic set of inheritable information for the development and function of a human being.
 
According to Francis Collins, the director of National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), the genome could be imagine as a book with multiple uses. He said: “It’s a history book – a narrative of the journey of our species through time. It’s a shop manual, with an incredibly detailed blueprint for building every human cell. And it’s a transformative textbook of medicine, with insights that will give health care providers immense new powers to treat, prevent and cure disease.”
 
The Human Genome Project had created many tools that can be used in characterize the genomes of other organisms used extensively in biological research. For examples, mice, fruit flies and flatworms are the model organism that can be used to identify the sequence or function of a homologous (similar) gene in human beings.
 
In conclusion, the Human Genome Project might appear as a perfect project at the first glance. Most probably is the genome was successfully sequenced and the involvement of the government in the project. Yet, the ultimate success of HGP still remains unclear.
 
Reference: National Human Genome Research Institute
 

Is Human Genome Project really beneficial to humans? Leave your precious opinion to start the discussion.

Human Genome Project – Find out Human Database is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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The Angelman syndrome clinical diagnosis is heavily dependent on the combination of some common behaviour like excessive laughter, apparent happiness with tremulous movements and gait ataxia (lack of coordination of muscle movement). Usually, the normal prenatal and birth history do not provides any clues in diagnosis of AS in Cytogenetics. CT scans, laboratory tests of blood and urine are usually normal including metabolic screening. Consequently, it is difficult for the clinical experts to encounter the AS especially when the child is less than 12 months of age. It is because the tremulous movements, ataxia and severe lack of speech may not be apparent during that time.
 
There are many common features of Angelman syndrome.

i. Severe speech deficit (usually absent speech)
 
ii. Mental retardation
 
iii. Microcephaly (small head)
 
iv. Seizures (convulsions in which AS patient’s body shakes rapidly and uncontrollably)
 
v. Developmental delay
 
vi. Feeding problems
 
vii. Hypopigmentation (the loss of skin color)
 
viii. Frequently drooling
 
ix. Tend to put objects in mouth
 
The facial features general physical appearances are generally normal for the individual of Angelman syndrome. As the child with AS growing up, the correct diagnosis may become evident when speech is essentially absent and the attempts at walking are compromised because of sever ataxia. In addition, the seizures will occur more frequently after 1 year of age.
 
In conclusion, the individual of Angelman syndrome may be hyperexcitable with excessive laughing, grabbing and pulling to engage others. They are just like the ‘Angels’ who always bring happiness to people. Usually, the parents may be the first to suggest the possibility of Angelman syndrome. Thus, earlier detection of this genetic disorder may help the children to overcome the learning problem through the assessment from the clinical experts.
 

My ultimate hope is this Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog can really help in increasing the awareness of people about the genetic disorders and cancer.

Angelman Syndrome – Angel-like Genetic Disorder is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Prader-Willi syndrome is the most common genetic cause of marked obesity in humans according to Cytogenetics. It is a complex disorder with cardinal features of
 
i)    Infantile hypotonia (low muscle tone)
 
ii)   Mild growth retardation
 
iii)  Frequent occurrence of breech presentation (baby enters the birth canal with the buttocks or feet first)
 
iv)  Small hands and feet with gracile and tapering fingers
 
v)   Microcephaly (smaller head)
 
vi)  Almond-shaped eyes
 
vii) Mental deficiency (average IQ of 65)
 
viii) Short stature and so on.
 
From the age of about one and half years onward, hyperphagia becomes a serious problem, leading to gross obesity. Due to hyperphagia and gross obesity, diabetes often sets in during adolescence or later. Epilepsy is found in a minority of cases. Mental development is characterised by moderate to severe retardation with tendency to behaviour disorders, especially reactive to food deprivation. Patients with this syndrome may need specialists for assessment and treatment of their behavioural and learning problems, at the beginning of childhood. Prader-Willi syndrome is present in all races and ethnic groups and most cases are sporadic.
 
In conclusion, Prader-willi syndrome is a genetic disorder that needs treatment and assessment to overcome the learning problem and obesity problem of the patients. I will write a series of Prader-Willi syndrome in this Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog in order to give people a clear mind about this syndrome. Stay tuned!

Prader-Willi Syndrome – Genetic Disorder That Cause Obesity is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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3 ‘Top’ in Cytogenetics and Cancer Research Blog

Top Commented Post

15 Benefits of Smoking Cessation

“Smoking cessation provides extensive health benefits for everyone including the smokers and non-smokers. There are 15 significant health benefits of quitting smoking.”
 
There are 6 comments for this post. Although not much, it is an encouragement for me as a new blogger. I’m looking forward to listen to more comments for this Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog.
 

Top Searched Post

Cancer Research: How Cancer Cell Spread to Other Cell?

“Cancer research is the study of abnormal cells. The malignant cancer cells will harm to our body and invade to other adjacent cells. We discover that these malignant cells can infiltrate to the surrounding tissue through the lymphatics and blood vessels.”
 
I noticed that people prefer to know how cancer cell spread to other cell in my blog. This topic is the top searched in my blog for almost every day. I will try to write more about this in 2010.
 

Top Visited Post

Top 10 Discoveries of Cancer Treatment in 2009

“I have gathered the cancer research news from Google and NCI. Below are some of the new findings of cancer treatment which I found really benefits to the world.”
 
I have used this post to participate the Group Writing Project organized by DailyBloggingTips.com. This is the top visited post that I have in my blog now. I get a lot of natural links from other websites since I posted this article.
 

3 ‘Most’ in Cytogenetics and Cancer Research Blog

Most Controversial Post

Cigarette Smoking – Primary Risk Factor for Lung Cancer

“Cigarette smoking is the primary risk factor for lung cancer. The cancer research shows that the risk of getting the lung cancer is higher among the cigarette smokers than the non-smokers.”
 
I am so surprised that this post had been listed in the top 200 of controversial article in Reddit.com at the day I posted it. I don’t think this is good news for me. However, I am so happy that this article had been highlighted in the world and hopefully it can increase the awareness of people regarding to the lung cancer.
 

Most Viewed Post

3 Main Types of Cancer Diseases

“Cancer is a complicated set of diseases which human still cannot really figure out what is going on. There are more than 200 types of diseases cause by cancer. Most of these cancer diseases possess the different properties and treatments.  There are three main types of cancer diseases.”
 
I noticed that people tend to click on this post when they visit my blog. I think most of us wish to know more about cancer now.
 

Most Favourite Post

XXX Syndrome (Superwoman) | Birth Defect in Cytogenetics

“Why a female with 47, XXX karyotype can be described as a ‘superwoman’ in Cytogenetics? Is she possesses any super power or advantage just like X-Men?”
 
Personally, this is the favourite post that I like most in this blog. How about you? Do you like this post too?
 
In conclusion, I will try to write more quality articles in year 2010 to reach the aim to increase the awareness of people around me regarding to cancer and genetic disorders. Thanks for your supporting!
 

Which post you like the most in this Cytogenetics and Cancer Research blog? I would like to hear the feedback from you all. Come and share with me.

End of 2009 in Cytogenetics and Cancer Research Blog is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Meiotic Nondisjunction Causes Autosomal Aneuploidy

The origin of autosomal aneuploidy is because of meiotic nondisjunction. The meiotic nondisjunction is random for all autosomes except for chromosome 21. Chromosome 21 has shown the highest frequency of autosomal aneuploidy.
 
According to cytogenetic studies, the incidence of autosomal aneuploidy in spontaneous abortuses (die before birth) is much higher than incidences in newborns. So, what is the case for aneuploidy actually observed in spontaneous abortuses or liveborns? All trisomies for all autosomes have been reported in spontaneous abortuses. The fetal only can survive if and only if the trisomies are in mosaic form. However, there are still many exceptions for the trisomies 13, 18 and 21. Some of the foetus still can survive even though the trisomies 13, 18 or 21 are in nonmosaic form.
 
Why the frequencies of trisomy for each chromosome might be similar at the time of conception but differ greatly among abortuses and liveborns especially for trisomy 21? It can be explained by the devastating effect of chromosomal imbalance. Most of the autosomal aneuploidies are very deleterious and lethal in the pre-embryonic stage. As a result, those abnormalities are unrecognized and, therefore, unstudied spontaneous abortions.
 
Furthermore, the lethality of a particular autosomal aneuploidy is related to the gene content of the particular chromosome. Aneuploidies for the gene rich chromosomes are less likely to survive. However, the less gene rich chromosomes like chromosome 13, 18 and 21 are more likely to survive to term.
 
Anyway, we will just focus on those observed in liveborns for the autosomal aneuploidy in Cytogenetics. I will talk more details about the monosomies and trisomies in my future post. Stay tuned!

Autosomal Aneuploidy – Cytogenetic Abnormalities is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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Primary Cancer Prevention

Primary cancer prevention is an approach to reduce the impact of carcinogens. We can do this through administration of a chemopreventive agent or remove the environmental carcinogens. The main aim of primary prevention is to prevent a cancer from the very beginning to the developing by reducing individual risk.

 
There are many primary cancer prevention methods which include the lifestyle modification or interventions that modify risk. These methods will become more effective if those cancers in which causes are known.
 
Below are some of the factors that can help to reduce overall cancer incidence:

i. Minimize the exposure to carcinogens. For example, we should avoid from consuming tobacco which contains carcinogen.
 
ii. Dietary modification. For example, we should take balanced meal and reduce the consuming of salt, sugar and high cholesterol foods.
 
iii. Increasing physical activity. For example, we should do some exercises during our daily life like jogging, swimming and so on to keep our body fit.
 
As we all know, unhealthy diet and tobacco use are the leading risk factors for cancer. Smoking cessation is the best way to avoid ourselves from cancer developing. Benefis of quitting smoking begin within the first year of stopping and continue to increase. If you wish to know more about the benefits of smoking cessation, you may read the 15 Benefits of Smoking Cessation. In addition, the role of diet, nutrition and maintaining a healthy body weight is critical to lessen the cancer risk.
 

Secondary Cancer Prevention

Secondary cancer prevention is an approach to detect the abnormal changes at the beginning of the development of malignancy. It involves screening and early detection methods like mammogram, pap test and so on. This can help us to identify any abnormal changes of our body before they become cancerous. Therefore, it is effective to prevent cancer from fully developing. Sometimes, secondary cancer prevention can involve the treatment of precancerous lesions in an attempt to reverse carcinogenesis so that the lesion can regress.
 

Tertiary Cancer Prevention

Tertiary cancer prevention is an approach to control the cancer and prevention of disease-related complications. It involves a variety of aspects of patient care such as quality of life, adjuvant therapies, surgical intervention and palliative care.
 
In conclusion, we can see that the primary cancer prevention is the main role of cancer prevention. Unfortunately, the primary prevention research and efforts are largely underfunded. This lack of prioritization cause the delays in improving and delivering early detection and prevention methods that can save millions of lives.
 

Do you know any methods of cancer prevention? Come and share with us! Prevention is always better than cure!

Say No to Cancer! – 3 Approaches to Prevent Cancer is a post from: Cytogenetics and Cancer Research

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